This paper examines the biblical calendar as a lunar–solar timekeeping system grounded in observable celestial cycles and explores its role in structuring social organization and ritual life in ancient Israel. Modern treatments of biblical time often assume a continuous seven-day week detached from astronomical observation, harmonizing biblical texts with later calendrical conventions rather than analyzing their internal logic as an operational system. Drawing on close textual analysis of the Hebrew Bible alongside selected Second Temple sources, this study reconstructs the calendrical framework presupposed by biblical law and narrative, focusing on Genesis 1:14 as a foundational charter for time regulation. The analysis integrates philological examination of key calendrical terms with comparative ancient Near Eastern practices and historical astronomy to assess how days, months, and appointed times were coordinated through observable cycles of the sun and moon. Methodologically, the paper approaches timekeeping as a social technology that enabled communal synchronization, agricultural planning, and ritual coordination. By foregrounding observability and repeatability, the study clarifies longstanding interpretive tensions surrounding festivals, new moons, and periodic rest days. The paper contributes to interdisciplinary conversations in social history and cultural studies by demonstrating how cosmology, observation, and social order intersect in ancient time systems.

Authors:
Wayne Smith, Independent Scholar, United States

About the Presenter(s)
Wayne Smith is an independent researcher and former educator whose work focuses on ancient calendars, sacred time, and social organization in antiquity. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Educational Studies from Colgate University.

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